🔭 TOEFL Lectures – vocabulary by discipline · Vocabulary by Exam · 113 words

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photosynthesis /ˌfəʊtəʊˈsɪnθəsɪs/ n	the process by which green plants use sunlight to turn water and carbon dioxide into food Photosynthesis releases oxygen as a by-product, which animals then breathe.
organism /ˈɔːɡənɪzəm/ n	a living thing, such as a plant, animal or bacterium Even the smallest organism plays a part in the wider food web.
species /ˈspiːʃiːz/ n	a group of living things whose members are similar and can breed together Scientists discover thousands of new insect species every year.
habitat /ˈhæbɪtæt/ n	the natural home of a plant or animal Loss of habitat is the biggest threat to many forest birds.
ecosystem /ˈiːkəʊsɪstəm/ n	all the living things in an area and the way they affect each other and their surroundings Removing a single predator can upset the balance of an entire ecosystem.
predator /ˈpredətə/ n	an animal that kills and eats other animals The bright colours warn predators that the frog is poisonous.
prey /preɪ/ n	an animal that is hunted and eaten by another animal Owls hunt their prey mainly by sound rather than sight.
food chain /ˈfuːd tʃeɪn/ n	a series of living things in which each one is eaten by the next Chemicals from farms can build up as they move up the food chain.
adaptation /ˌædæpˈteɪʃn/ n	a feature that helps a living thing survive in its environment The camel's wide feet are an adaptation to walking on sand.
natural selection /ˌnætʃrəl sɪˈlekʃn/ n	the process by which individuals with useful traits survive and pass those traits on Darwin argued that natural selection explains the variety of life on Earth.
evolve /iˈvɒlv/ v	to develop gradually over many generations Whales evolved from land mammals that returned to the sea.
gene /dʒiːn/ n	a unit inside a cell that controls a particular characteristic passed from parent to child A single gene determines whether this flower is red or white.
chromosome /ˈkrəʊməsəʊm/ n	a structure in a cell nucleus that carries genetic information Humans normally have twenty-three pairs of chromosomes.
bacteria /bækˈtɪəriə/ n	very small single-celled organisms, some of which cause disease Not all bacteria are harmful; many help us digest food.
enzyme /ˈenzaɪm/ n	a substance produced by living cells that speeds up chemical reactions Enzymes in saliva start breaking down starch as soon as we chew.
nutrient /ˈnjuːtriənt/ n	a substance that living things need to grow and stay healthy Roots absorb water and nutrients from the soil.
metabolism /məˈtæbəlɪzəm/ n	the chemical processes in a body that turn food into energy Hibernating animals slow their metabolism to save energy.
respiration /ˌrespəˈreɪʃn/ n	the process by which living things take in oxygen and release energy from food Plants carry out respiration both during the day and at night.
cell division /ˈsel dɪˌvɪʒn/ n	the process in which one cell splits to form two new cells Rapid cell division allows the embryo to grow quickly.
migrate /maɪˈɡreɪt/ v	to move from one region to another at a particular time of year These butterflies migrate thousands of kilometres to spend the winter in Mexico.
extinct /ɪkˈstɪŋkt/ adj	no longer existing anywhere in the world The dodo became extinct less than a century after humans reached its island.
biodiversity /ˌbaɪəʊdaɪˈvɜːsəti/ n	the variety of plants and animals in a particular place Tropical rainforests have the highest biodiversity on the planet.
colony /ˈkɒləni/ n	a group of animals or plants of the same type living together An ant colony can contain millions of workers but only one queen.
spawn /spɔːn/ v	to lay a large number of eggs in water Salmon swim back up the river where they were born in order to spawn.
nocturnal /nɒkˈtɜːnl/ adj	active mainly at night Most bats are nocturnal and sleep in caves during the day.
marine /məˈriːn/ adj	connected with the sea and the creatures that live in it Marine biologists are tracking the movements of the sharks with radio tags.
coral reef /ˈkɒrəl riːf/ n	a long underwater structure formed by the skeletons of tiny sea animals Warmer water causes coral reefs to lose their colour and die.
hybrid /ˈhaɪbrɪd/ n	an animal or plant produced from two different species or varieties A mule is a hybrid of a horse and a donkey.
erosion /ɪˈrəʊʒn/ n	the gradual wearing away of rock or soil by water, wind or ice Over millions of years, erosion by the river carved out the canyon.
deposition /ˌdepəˈzɪʃn/ n	the process in which water or wind leaves sand, soil or rock in a new place Deposition at the mouth of the river slowly builds up new land.
glacier /ˈɡlæsiə/ n	a large mass of ice that moves slowly down a mountain or across land As the glacier retreated, it left behind piles of rock and gravel.
volcano /vɒlˈkeɪnəʊ/ n	a mountain with an opening through which hot melted rock and gas escape The island was formed by an underwater volcano.
lava /ˈlɑːvə/ n	hot liquid rock that comes out of a volcano and becomes solid when it cools When lava cools quickly, it forms a smooth black rock.
erupt /ɪˈrʌpt/ v	to explode and throw out smoke, ash and melted rock The volcano last erupted nearly two hundred years ago.
earthquake /ˈɜːθkweɪk/ n	a sudden violent shaking of the ground caused by movement of rock below the surface The earthquake measured 7.2 and was felt three hundred kilometres away.
seismic /ˈsaɪzmɪk/ adj	connected with earthquakes or vibrations of the earth Seismic waves travel at different speeds through solid and liquid rock.
subduction /səbˈdʌkʃn/ n	the process in which one tectonic plate slides beneath another Deep ocean trenches form at subduction zones.
mineral /ˈmɪnərəl/ n	a natural solid substance with a particular chemical structure, found in rock Quartz is one of the most common minerals in the Earth's crust.
limestone /ˈlaɪmstəʊn/ n	a white or grey rock formed mainly from the shells of tiny sea creatures Rainwater slowly dissolves limestone, creating huge underground caves.
granite /ˈɡrænɪt/ n	a very hard grey or pink rock formed when magma cools slowly underground Granite is so durable that it is often used for monuments.
aquifer /ˈækwɪfə/ n	a layer of rock or soil underground that holds water Farmers are pumping water from the aquifer faster than rain can refill it.
groundwater /ˈɡraʊndwɔːtə/ n	water that is held underground in soil or rock Many villages depend entirely on groundwater for drinking.
canyon /ˈkænjən/ n	a deep valley with very steep sides, usually cut by a river The canyon walls reveal layers of rock that are millions of years old.
stalactite /ˈstæləktaɪt/ n	a long pointed piece of rock hanging from the roof of a cave, formed by dripping water It can take a thousand years for a stalactite to grow a few centimetres.
topsoil /ˈtɒpsɔɪl/ n	the layer of soil nearest the surface, in which plants grow Strong winds blew away the topsoil after the grassland was ploughed.
petrified /ˈpetrɪfaɪd/ adj	(of wood or plants) turned into stone over a very long time The desert contains a forest of petrified trees over 200 million years old.
landform /ˈlændfɔːm/ n	a natural feature of the earth's surface, such as a hill or valley Glaciers created many of the landforms we see in northern Europe today.
silt /sɪlt/ n	fine sand and mud carried by flowing water and left as a layer The annual floods covered the fields with rich silt.
galaxy /ˈɡæləksi/ n	a very large group of stars, gas and dust held together by gravity Our solar system lies in one of the spiral arms of the galaxy.
orbit /ˈɔːbɪt/ n	the curved path of a planet or object moving around a larger one Mars takes about 687 Earth days to complete one orbit of the Sun.
solar system /ˈsəʊlə ˌsɪstəm/ n	the Sun and all the planets and other objects that move around it Jupiter is the largest planet in our solar system.
constellation /ˌkɒnstəˈleɪʃn/ n	a group of stars that forms a pattern and has a name Sailors once used familiar constellations to find their way at night.
telescope /ˈtelɪskəʊp/ n	an instrument that makes distant objects look larger and nearer The space telescope can detect light from galaxies billions of years old.
atmosphere /ˈætməsfɪə/ n	the layer of gases surrounding a planet Venus has a thick atmosphere that traps an enormous amount of heat.
satellite /ˈsætəlaɪt/ n	a natural object or a machine that moves around a planet The Moon is Earth's only natural satellite.
black hole /ˌblæk ˈhəʊl/ n	a region in space where gravity is so strong that not even light can escape A black hole forms when a very large star collapses.
red giant /ˌred ˈdʒaɪənt/ n	a large, cool star in a late stage of its life In about five billion years, the Sun will swell into a red giant.
white dwarf /ˌwaɪt ˈdwɔːf/ n	a small, very dense star that remains after a star like the Sun has used its fuel A white dwarf is about the size of Earth but far heavier.
nuclear fusion /ˌnjuːkliə ˈfjuːʒn/ n	the joining of atomic nuclei, which releases huge amounts of energy Stars shine because of nuclear fusion in their cores.
radiation /ˌreɪdiˈeɪʃn/ n	energy sent out as waves or particles, such as light, heat or X-rays The magnetic field protects the planet from harmful solar radiation.
axis /ˈæksɪs/ n	an imaginary line through the centre of an object, around which it turns The tilt of Earth's axis is what gives us the seasons.
solar wind /ˌsəʊlə ˈwɪnd/ n	a stream of charged particles flowing out from the Sun The solar wind pushes a comet's tail away from the Sun.
Big Bang /ˌbɪɡ ˈbæŋ/ n	the single huge explosion that many scientists believe started the universe Most astronomers agree that the Big Bang happened about 13.8 billion years ago.
cosmic /ˈkɒzmɪk/ adj	connected with the whole universe Faint cosmic radiation still remains from the early universe.
lunar /ˈluːnə/ adj	connected with the Moon Rock samples from the lunar surface were brought back in 1969.
portrait /ˈpɔːtreɪt/ n	a painting, drawing or photograph of a person, especially of the face Wealthy merchants paid artists to paint portraits of their families.
linear perspective /ˌlɪniə pəˈspektɪv/ n	a drawing method that makes flat images look deep by having lines meet at a distant point Linear perspective made Renaissance paintings appear far more realistic.
canvas /ˈkænvəs/ n	strong cloth used for oil painting, or a painting on this cloth Painting on canvas was lighter and cheaper than painting on wooden panels.
brushstroke /ˈbrʌʃstrəʊk/ n	a mark made by a paintbrush on a surface His loose, visible brushstrokes shocked the critics of the time.
patron /ˈpeɪtrən/ n	a person who gives money and support to artists or writers The artist's main patron was a wealthy banking family in Florence.
commission /kəˈmɪʃn/ v	to formally ask someone to create a piece of work for you The church commissioned a series of paintings for its altar.
masterpiece /ˈmɑːstəpiːs/ n	a work of art that is an excellent example of its type Many critics consider the ceiling paintings his greatest masterpiece.
Baroque /bəˈrɒk/ adj	in the highly decorated style of European art and music of the 17th and early 18th centuries Baroque churches are filled with gold, curves and dramatic light.
Romanticism /rəʊˈmæntɪsɪzəm/ n	an artistic movement of the late 18th and 19th centuries focusing on emotion and nature Romanticism reacted against the strict rules of earlier classical art.
Cubism /ˈkjuːbɪzəm/ n	an early 20th-century art style showing objects as geometric shapes from several angles at once Cubism broke a face into flat shapes seen from different directions.
engraving /ɪnˈɡreɪvɪŋ/ n	a picture printed from a design cut into metal or wood Cheap engravings allowed ordinary people to own copies of famous paintings.
woodcut /ˈwʊdkʌt/ n	a print made from a design cut into a block of wood Japanese woodcuts had a strong influence on European painters.
tempera /ˈtempərə/ n	a type of paint made by mixing colour with egg Before oil paint became popular, most panels were painted in tempera.
symmetry /ˈsɪmətri/ n	the quality of having two halves that match exactly Classical temples are admired for their perfect symmetry.
relief /rɪˈliːf/ n	a sculpture in which shapes stand out from a flat background The temple walls are covered with reliefs showing scenes of battle.
aesthetic /iːsˈθetɪk/ adj	connected with beauty and the appreciation of art The objects were made for daily use, but they also have great aesthetic value.
artifact /ˈɑːtɪfækt/ n	an object made by a person, especially one of historical interest Archaeologists found stone tools and other artifacts near the river.
ritual /ˈrɪtʃuəl/ n	a set of actions always performed in the same way, often as part of a ceremony The harvest ritual involved music, dancing and offerings of grain.
kinship /ˈkɪnʃɪp/ n	the relationship between members of the same family In many small societies, kinship determines who you are allowed to marry.
indigenous /ɪnˈdɪdʒənəs/ adj	belonging to a place and having lived there before others arrived Indigenous communities have used these plants as medicine for centuries.
ancestor /ˈænsestə/ n	a person in your family who lived a long time ago Our ancestors made the long journey out of Africa tens of thousands of years ago.
oral tradition /ˌɔːrəl trəˈdɪʃn/ n	history and stories passed from one generation to the next by speaking With no written language, the group preserved its history through oral tradition.
settlement /ˈsetlmənt/ n	a place where people have come to live and build homes The earliest settlements grew up close to rivers and fertile land.
agrarian /əˈɡreəriən/ adj	connected with farming and the use of land The move to an agrarian lifestyle allowed populations to grow rapidly.
pottery /ˈpɒtəri/ n	pots and other objects made from baked clay Fragments of painted pottery help date each layer of the site.
burial site /ˈberiəl saɪt/ n	a place where people were buried, often studied by archaeologists Jewellery found at the burial site suggests the person was of high status.
petroglyph /ˈpetrəɡlɪf/ n	a picture or symbol carved into rock, especially in prehistoric times The petroglyphs show hunters following herds of deer.
cultural diffusion /ˌkʌltʃərəl dɪˈfjuːʒn/ n	the spread of ideas, customs and technology from one group to another Trade routes encouraged cultural diffusion between Asia and Europe.
archaeological /ˌɑːkiəˈlɒdʒɪkl/ adj	connected with the study of past societies through the objects they left behind Archaeological evidence shows that the city was abandoned suddenly.
carbon dating /ˌkɑːbən ˈdeɪtɪŋ/ n	a method of finding the age of very old organic material by measuring its carbon Carbon dating showed that the bones were about 9,000 years old.
Bronze Age /ˈbrɒnz eɪdʒ/ n	the period when people made tools and weapons from bronze During the Bronze Age, long-distance trade in metals expanded greatly.
cognition /kɒɡˈnɪʃn/ n	the mental processes of knowing, thinking and understanding Lack of sleep has a measurable effect on cognition and reaction time.
perception /pəˈsepʃn/ n	the way you notice and understand things through your senses Our perception of colour changes depending on the surrounding light.
short-term memory /ˌʃɔːt tɜːm ˈmeməri/ n	the part of memory that holds small amounts of information for a short time Most people can keep about seven items in short-term memory.
long-term memory /ˌlɒŋ tɜːm ˈmeməri/ n	the part of memory that stores information for a long time Repeated practice moves information into long-term memory.
stimulus /ˈstɪmjələs/ n	something that causes a reaction in a person, animal or plant The dogs learned to respond to the sound of a bell as a stimulus.
conditioning /kənˈdɪʃənɪŋ/ n	training a person or animal to behave in a certain way through repeated experience Through conditioning, the pigeons learned to peck a key to get food.
reinforcement /ˌriːɪnˈfɔːsmənt/ n	a reward or response that makes a behaviour more likely to happen again Praise works as positive reinforcement for young learners.
behaviourism /bɪˈheɪvjərɪzəm/ n	the theory that psychology should study observable behaviour rather than thoughts Behaviourism dominated American psychology for much of the 20th century.
subconscious /ˌsʌbˈkɒnʃəs/ adj	existing in the mind but not fully known about Advertisers try to influence our subconscious preferences.
bias /ˈbaɪəs/ n	a tendency to favour one idea or group in a way that is unfair or inaccurate Confirmation bias makes us notice only the evidence that supports our beliefs.
motivation /ˌməʊtɪˈveɪʃn/ n	the reason or desire that makes someone do something Students with strong intrinsic motivation tend to remember more.
developmental /dɪˌveləpˈmentl/ adj	connected with how a person grows and changes over time Developmental psychologists study how babies learn language.
recall /rɪˈkɔːl/ v	to bring a fact or event back into your mind Participants were asked to recall as many words from the list as possible.
placebo /pləˈsiːbəʊ/ n	a substance with no medical effect given to compare with a real treatment Some patients improved even though they had only been given a placebo.
control group /kənˈtrəʊl ɡruːp/ n	a group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment being tested The control group did not take part in the memory training.
innate /ɪˈneɪt/ adj	present from birth rather than learned Some researchers believe the ability to learn language is innate.
instinct /ˈɪnstɪŋkt/ n	a natural tendency to behave in a certain way without learning or thinking Newly hatched turtles follow their instinct and head straight for the sea.