📖 IELTS Reading – academic words & paraphrase · Vocabulary by Exam · 120 words

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assert /əˈsɜːt/ v	to state firmly that something is true The author asserts that early humans were far more mobile than believed.
contend /kənˈtend/ v	to argue or claim that something is true Some historians contend that the famine was caused by policy, not weather.
postulate /ˈpɒstjuleɪt/ v	to suggest something as a basic fact for a theory Scientists postulated the existence of the planet before anyone saw it.
speculate /ˈspekjuleɪt/ v	to form ideas about something without firm evidence Researchers can only speculate about why the colony suddenly disappeared.
refute /rɪˈfjuːt/ v	to prove that a statement or theory is wrong New fossil evidence refutes the idea that birds evolved late.
concede /kənˈsiːd/ v	to admit, often unwillingly, that something is true The report concedes that the costs were higher than predicted.
ascribe /əˈskraɪb/ v	to say that something is caused by or belongs to something Doctors once ascribed the illness to bad air rather than water.
corroborate /kəˈrɒbəreɪt/ v	to give extra evidence that supports a statement or theory Satellite images corroborate the villagers' accounts of the flood.
substantiate /səbˈstænʃieɪt/ v	to provide evidence to prove that something is true The company failed to substantiate its claims about the product.
undermine /ˌʌndəˈmaɪn/ v	to make something gradually weaker or less effective These results undermine the belief that bigger classes harm learning.
cast doubt on /ˌkɑːst ˈdaʊt ɒn/ phrase	to make something seem less certain or true The latest study casts doubt on the benefits of vitamin supplements.
call into question /ˌkɔːl ɪntə ˈkwestʃən/ phrase	to cause people to doubt something The error calls into question the reliability of the entire survey.
endorse /ɪnˈdɔːs/ v	to say publicly that you support a person, idea or plan Many experts endorse the use of bilingual teaching in early years.
uphold /ʌpˈhəʊld/ v	to support or maintain a decision, principle or belief The panel voted to uphold the original conclusion despite strong criticism.
posit /ˈpɒzɪt/ v	to suggest an idea as a basis for an argument The theory posits that language developed from simple gestures.
emphasise /ˈemfəsaɪz/ v	to give special importance to something The writer emphasises that the trend began long before the internet.
point out /ˌpɔɪnt ˈaʊt/ phr v	to tell someone a fact they may not have noticed Critics point out that the sample included only university students.
hypothesise /haɪˈpɒθəsaɪz/ v	to suggest an explanation that has not yet been proved The team hypothesised that sleep loss would reduce memory accuracy.
theorise /ˈθɪəraɪz/ v	to form a theory to explain something Some scientists theorise that the moon was formed by a collision.
debunk /ˌdiːˈbʌŋk/ v	to show that a popular belief or idea is false The article debunks the myth that we use only ten percent of our brains.
overstate /ˌəʊvəˈsteɪt/ v	to describe something as more important or serious than it is The dangers of the new technology have been greatly overstated.
underestimate /ˌʌndərˈestɪmeɪt/ v	to think something is smaller or less important than it is Early planners underestimated how quickly the city would grow.
overestimate /ˌəʊvərˈestɪmeɪt/ v	to think something is larger or more important than it is People tend to overestimate how much exercise they actually do.
rule out /ˌruːl ˈaʊt/ phr v	to decide that something is impossible or not suitable Investigators have not ruled out human error as a cause.
bear out /ˌbeər ˈaʊt/ phr v	to show that something is true Later experiments would bear out Darwin's ideas about the finches.
point to /ˈpɔɪnt tuː/ phr v	to suggest that something is likely to be true or the cause All the evidence points to a sudden change in climate.
shed light on /ˌʃed ˈlaɪt ɒn/ phrase	to help explain something that was not understood The diaries shed light on daily life in eighteenth-century London.
lend support to /ˌlend səˈpɔːt tuː/ phrase	to make an idea or theory seem more likely to be true The findings lend support to the view that diet affects mood.
be credited with /biː ˈkredɪtɪd wɪð/ phrase	to be recognised as having done or achieved something Ada Lovelace is often credited with writing the first computer program.
draw on /ˈdrɔː ɒn/ phr v	to use information or experience to help you do something The book draws on interviews with more than two hundred farmers.
tentatively /ˈtentətɪvli/ adv	in a way that is not certain or final The researchers tentatively conclude that the drug slows memory loss.
tentative /ˈtentətɪv/ adj	not definite or certain; done without confidence These are only tentative results, based on a small number of cases.
supposedly /səˈpəʊzɪdli/ adv	according to what is generally believed, though it may not be true The supposedly healthy snack actually contains a lot of sugar.
allegedly /əˈledʒɪdli/ adv	according to what people say, without proof The painting was allegedly hidden in a farmhouse during the war.
ostensibly /ɒˈstensəbli/ adv	appearing to be true, although this may not be so The road was ostensibly built for farmers, but mainly served the army.
seemingly /ˈsiːmɪŋli/ adv	in a way that appears to be true but may not be A seemingly minor change in temperature can kill an entire reef.
purportedly /pəˈpɔːtɪdli/ adv	claimed to be true, although this may be false The letter was purportedly written by the queen herself.
conceivably /kənˈsiːvəbli/ adv	possibly; in a way that can be imagined The disease could conceivably spread to other parts of the country.
implausible /ɪmˈplɔːzəbl/ adj	not seeming reasonable or likely to be true Early critics found the idea of moving continents implausible.
conclusive /kənˈkluːsɪv/ adj	proving that something is true and ending doubt There is still no conclusive evidence that the plant cures headaches.
inconclusive /ˌɪnkənˈkluːsɪv/ adj	not giving a clear result or answer Results from the first trial were inconclusive, so a second was planned.
anecdotal /ˌænɪkˈdəʊtl/ adj	based on personal stories rather than careful research Most support for the remedy is anecdotal rather than scientific.
speculative /ˈspekjələtɪv/ adj	based on guesses rather than firm knowledge Any estimate of the city's ancient population is highly speculative.
debatable /dɪˈbeɪtəbl/ adj	not certain, because people have different opinions about it Whether the policy actually reduced crime is debatable.
contentious /kənˈtenʃəs/ adj	likely to cause disagreement between people Testing on animals remains a contentious issue among scientists.
dubious /ˈdjuːbiəs/ adj	probably not true, honest or reliable The claim is based on dubious figures from an unknown source.
sceptical /ˈskeptɪkl/ adj	having doubts that a claim or statement is true Many economists remain sceptical about the plan's benefits.
counterintuitive /ˌkaʊntərɪnˈtjuːɪtɪv/ adj	different from what you would naturally expect It seems counterintuitive, but adding roads can increase traffic.
unprecedented /ʌnˈpresɪdentɪd/ adj	never having happened or existed before The region experienced an unprecedented rise in temperatures last summer.
consensus /kənˈsensəs/ n	general agreement among a group of people There is now a broad consensus that the climate is warming.
contention /kənˈtenʃn/ n	a claim that someone argues for, or disagreement Her main contention is that cities should ban private cars.
rationale /ˌræʃəˈnɑːl/ n	the reasons behind a decision or belief The rationale for the study was to test cheaper treatments.
anomaly /əˈnɒməli/ n	something that is different from what is normal or expected At first the strange reading was dismissed as an anomaly.
causal link /ˌkɔːzl ˈlɪŋk/ n	a connection in which one thing directly causes another The study found no causal link between video games and violence.
peer-reviewed /ˌpɪə rɪˈvjuːd/ adj	checked by other experts before being published Only peer-reviewed articles were included in the analysis.
randomised controlled trial /ˌrændəmaɪzd kənˌtrəʊld ˈtraɪəl/ n	a study where people are randomly put into treatment or control groups A randomised controlled trial is the most reliable way to test a medicine.
prevalence /ˈprevələns/ n	how common something is in a particular place or group The prevalence of short-sightedness has risen sharply among children.
onset /ˈɒnset/ n	the beginning of something, especially something unpleasant Regular exercise may delay the onset of memory problems.
proliferation /prəˌlɪfəˈreɪʃn/ n	a sudden rapid increase in the number of something The proliferation of smartphones has changed how people read news.
deterioration /dɪˌtɪəriəˈreɪʃn/ n	the process of becoming worse Air pollution has led to a deterioration in public health.
dwindle /ˈdwɪndl/ v	to become gradually smaller in size or number Fish stocks in the bay have dwindled over the past thirty years.
curtail /kɜːˈteɪl/ v	to reduce or limit something The drought forced farmers to curtail their use of water.
exacerbate /ɪɡˈzæsəbeɪt/ v	to make a bad situation or problem worse Cutting down the forest exacerbated flooding in the valley.
aggravate /ˈæɡrəveɪt/ v	to make an illness, injury or problem worse Dust and smoke can aggravate breathing problems in older people.
counteract /ˌkaʊntərˈækt/ v	to reduce the effect of something by acting against it Planting trees helps counteract the heat produced by concrete.
precipitate /prɪˈsɪpɪteɪt/ v	to make something bad happen suddenly or sooner The poor harvest precipitated a crisis in the region.
give rise to /ˌɡɪv ˈraɪz tuː/ phrase	to cause something to happen or exist Cheap printing helped give rise to a new class of readers in Europe.
stem from /ˈstem frɒm/ phr v	to be caused by something Many of the city's problems stem from poor planning in the 1960s.
account for /əˈkaʊnt fɔː/ phr v	to form a particular amount of something, or to explain it Insects account for over half of all known animal species.
attributable /əˈtrɪbjətəbl/ adj	likely to have been caused by something Around ten percent of the deaths were attributable to air pollution.
precursor /priˈkɜːsə/ n	something that came before and led to the development of another The abacus is often seen as a precursor to the calculator.
forerunner /ˈfɔːrʌnə/ n	a person or thing that existed before and influenced later ones The telegraph was a forerunner of modern communication networks.
advent /ˈædvent/ n	the arrival or beginning of an important development With the advent of railways, fresh fish reached inland towns.
inception /ɪnˈsepʃn/ n	the start of an organisation or activity Since its inception in 1990, the project has planted a million trees.
emergence /iˈmɜːdʒəns/ n	the process of appearing or becoming known The emergence of farming allowed people to live in permanent villages.
milestone /ˈmaɪlstəʊn/ n	a very important event in the development of something The first powered flight was a milestone in transport history.
pioneering /ˌpaɪəˈnɪərɪŋ/ adj	introducing new ideas or methods for the first time Her pioneering work on radiation earned her two Nobel prizes.
groundbreaking /ˈɡraʊndbreɪkɪŋ/ adj	very new and making an important discovery The groundbreaking study changed how doctors treat heart disease.
seminal /ˈsemɪnl/ adj	very important and influencing later developments His seminal paper on memory is still widely cited today.
prevailing /prɪˈveɪlɪŋ/ adj	existing or most common at a particular time The prevailing view at the time was that the earth was young.
prevalent /ˈprevələnt/ adj	common or widespread in a particular place or time Malaria is still prevalent in parts of the tropics.
ubiquitous /juːˈbɪkwɪtəs/ adj	seeming to be found everywhere Plastic has become ubiquitous, even in the deepest oceans.
scarce /skeəs/ adj	not available in large enough amounts Fresh water is becoming scarce in many desert cities.
abundant /əˈbʌndənt/ adj	existing in large quantities; more than enough Wildlife is abundant in the wetlands during the rainy season.
sparse /spɑːs/ adj	small in number and spread over a large area Vegetation is sparse on the upper slopes of the mountain.
dormant /ˈdɔːmənt/ adj	not active now but able to become active later The volcano had been dormant for over four hundred years.
viable /ˈvaɪəbl/ adj	able to work successfully or to survive Tidal power is now a commercially viable source of energy.
feasible /ˈfiːzəbl/ adj	possible to do or achieve easily or in practice Building a tunnel under the bay was not technically feasible then.
robust /rəʊˈbʌst/ adj	strong and unlikely to fail; based on reliable evidence The authors provide robust evidence for their main argument.
fragile /ˈfrædʒaɪl/ adj	easily broken or damaged Coral reefs are fragile ecosystems that recover very slowly.
resilient /rɪˈzɪliənt/ adj	able to recover quickly after difficulties or damage Some crops are more resilient to drought than traditional varieties.
susceptible /səˈseptəbl/ adj	easily influenced or harmed by something Young trees are particularly susceptible to frost damage.
prone to /ˈprəʊn tuː/ adj	likely to suffer from or do something bad Low-lying coastal areas are prone to flooding in winter.
endemic /enˈdemɪk/ adj	found only in a particular place or region The lemur is endemic to Madagascar and found nowhere else.
trait /treɪt/ n	a particular quality or characteristic Curiosity is a trait shared by many successful scientists.
inherit /ɪnˈherɪt/ v	to receive a quality or feature from your parents Children inherit half of their genes from each parent.
cognitive /ˈkɒɡnətɪv/ adj	connected with thinking, learning and memory Bilingualism may bring cognitive benefits in later life.
deprivation /ˌdeprɪˈveɪʃn/ n	the lack of something that is needed Even short periods of sleep deprivation affect concentration.
intake /ˈɪnteɪk/ n	the amount of food, drink or air taken into the body Reducing salt intake can lower blood pressure significantly.
threshold /ˈθreʃhəʊld/ n	the level at which something starts to happen or change Above a certain threshold, noise begins to damage hearing.
magnitude /ˈmæɡnɪtjuːd/ n	the great size or importance of something Few people understood the magnitude of the problem at first.
negligible /ˈneɡlɪdʒəbl/ adj	so small that it is not important The effect of the new law on house prices was negligible.
disproportionate /ˌdɪsprəˈpɔːʃənət/ adj	too large or too small compared with something else Poorer households spend a disproportionate share of income on energy.
trade-off /ˈtreɪd ɒf/ n	a balance between two things you cannot have at the same time There is a trade-off between speed and accuracy in this test.
by-product /ˈbaɪ ˌprɒdʌkt/ n	something produced while making something else Sawdust, a by-product of the timber industry, is used as fuel.
impetus /ˈɪmpɪtəs/ n	something that encourages a process to happen faster The oil crisis gave new impetus to research on solar power.
underpin /ˌʌndəˈpɪn/ v	to support or form the basis of an idea or system A few simple principles underpin the whole of modern physics.
underlying /ˌʌndəˈlaɪɪŋ/ adj	real but not immediately obvious The underlying cause of the decline was a loss of habitat.
hitherto /ˌhɪðəˈtuː/ adv	until now or until a particular time (formal) The tomb contained a hitherto unknown style of pottery.
to date /tə ˈdeɪt/ phrase	up to the present time To date, no one has found a complete skeleton of the animal.
as yet /əz ˈjet/ phrase	until now, used to say something has not happened The cause of the disease is, as yet, unknown.
by and large /ˌbaɪ ən ˈlɑːdʒ/ phrase	used when making a general statement By and large, the new rules have been welcomed by farmers.
in essence /ɪn ˈesns/ phrase	used when talking about the most basic part of something In essence, the theory says that all life shares a common ancestor.
contrary to /ˈkɒntrəri tuː/ phrase	used to say something is the opposite of what was expected Contrary to popular belief, bats are not blind.
akin to /əˈkɪn tuː/ adj	similar to something The sound the whale makes is akin to a human song.
analogous /əˈnæləɡəs/ adj	similar in some way, so that a comparison can be made The heart is analogous to a pump in a heating system.
tantamount to /ˈtæntəmaʊnt tuː/ adj	having the same effect or as bad as something else Ignoring the warning would be tantamount to admitting failure.
synonymous with /sɪˈnɒnɪməs wɪð/ adj	so closely connected that one suggests the other The town's name became synonymous with fine porcelain.
in the wake of /ɪn ðə ˈweɪk əv/ phrase	following and often caused by an event In the wake of the floods, new building rules were introduced.
as opposed to /əz əˈpəʊzd tuː/ phrase	used to show a contrast between two things Students learned more from doing, as opposed to simply listening.